Hello again.

For this post, I have a reply to only your 3rd question above.

I don't see how we can burden scientists with such final and ultimate responsibility for the fruits or failures of the technology they develop. For instance, Einstein and Oppenheimer had reservations about developing the atomic bomb, but they did so because they believed its use would be the lesser of 2 evils.

In retrospect, can we say that they are responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians in Hiroshima and Nagasaki? I'd say not. Not directly, and not really indirectly. The decision to drop the bombs was made by Truman and maybe his advisors.

The issue of the atomic bombs is gray – even if you understand that Japan was about to surrender. Therefore, we cannot paint the issue as black and white, and cannot paint either Einstein or Oppenheimer with the black brush of responsibility or guilt.

However, there are times when the issue is very dark gray. In such cases, those scientists who have a properly functioning moral compass (or those who are not color blind :-) ) can and should decide for themselves whether to work on any given project or for any given government.

They are, after all, human, right? And we should not expect superhuman or transhuman behavior from them. (Although such behavior is always welcome.)