Life of the Potato -- Everything you didn't want to know.

rglink (25)in #potato • 8 years ago

Its birth was as a wild plant thriving in the high altitudes of the Andes Mountains in South America. Many potato species well adapted to the cool conditions, several soil types, and rainfall grew in various altitudes. Its life changed when discovered by people in the Lake Titicaca region (now Southern Peru) approximately 8,000- 10,000 years ago ( USDA, ERS). The potato had many forms- colors, shapes- and it became a basic food source. The people, primarily the Aymara, cultivated potatoes at different altitudes; first in mounds combining several species, later with basic tools to break and prepare ground. Thousands of years later, the life of the potato became tied to the growth of a great civilization- the Inca Empire.

Begun as a tribe in about 1100 (CE), the Inca built an Empire along the South America coast and controlled a population of about 12,000,000 people (Britannica, Article: Inca). The Inca economy was based on agriculture including maize, quinoa, grains, and potatoes. They built an elaborate system of roads to connect major settlements; these roads were a key to transportation, trade and government control. For more than 500 years the Inca and the potato thrived together.

The Inca population and potato cultivation grew. Potatoes became part of the food supply and culture. History shows some of the remarkable details: one unit of time was reckoned based upon the time needed to cook a potato (Coe 1994); and potatoes were used as a medium of exchange like money today, farmers paid taxes in the form of potatoes, workers who performed public works like building roads were sometime paid with potatoes (Gale).

The Spanish exploration of South America again changed the life of the potato. It was carried across oceans to Europe and then back to North America. The life of the potato has been a journey across time and distance to get to the present stage where it is among the four most consumed food plants.1/

I. Where Do Potatoes Come From

Potatoes seem to be everywhere today, for many a feeling of home and comfort is found in a favorite potato dish- like mashed potatoes and butter. It was not always so. Modern science confirms that potatoes grew wild in South America and as far north as Mexico and Texas. However on a global basis, nearly every species is genetically linked to those of the Andes Mountains in South America (solanum tuberosum). Spanish explorers in the late 1500’s recognized the value of the exotic foods they found among the Incas and gradually introduced them to Spain. The word potato is basically a Spanish word similar to their word for Yams or sweet potatoes (Batata).

One historian called it the ‘Potato Diaspora’ (Gale) - the spreading out of the potato across the world. It began when cultures collided in the Spanish conquest of Peru. The potato became part of knowledge transferred from one great civilization to another. From Peru to Spain, then spread across Europe in staggered steps, resisted until proven. Even while it continued to spread East in Europe, the potato came back to America- the New World- where once again it became a foundation for growth. Now, in our age, it moves to the third World to fill the needs of growing populations in Africa and Asia. The potato has made a journey around the world to the present stage: a staple for a growing world.

II. How Do Potatoes Grow

For many of us, an early lesson in grade school involved cutting a piece of potato and putting it in water until roots formed and then into soil. This still remains one of the primary ways to grow potatoes- the seed potato.

A. Germination- potatoes take about 12-14 days to germinate. In germination a sprout arises from an “eye” on the tuber (whole potato) or seed potato (cut section of a potato with an eye). The ideal soil temperature is 50°F. The soil must be moist enough to keep the seed, seed potato, or tuber moist at all times. Potatoes grow well in a variety of soils. Good drainage is very important so that the sprout is not so wet that it becomes vulnerable to rot. Some clay or sand is needed to promote drainage.

B. Soil conditions- for heirloom potatoes the soil should be nutrient rich and loose. It should be slightly acidic, pH of 5.0-6.0. The soil should be turned, weeded, cleared of rocks and roots. The bed should be at least 18 inches deep. Compost is best for organic gardening; a rule of thumb is one hundred pounds per hundred feet of soil (one pound per foot). Chemical fertilizers should be balanced among nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the range of 10-15 for nitrogen. Too much nitrogen can cause hollow centers in the potatoes. Chemical fertilizers should be worked into the soil in advance of planting to avoid root burn in the delicate first roots. As the potato plant grows, one should add soil to keep a loose mound hilled around the stem of the plant.

C. Frost and Heat

Heat- Potatoes are vulnerable to excessive heat and cold during all stages of the life cycle. The ideal range for plant growth , tuber formation, and development is 77°F daytime temperature and 54° F at night. Similarly, a lack of water causes stress and on a scale called available soil moisture (ASM) the optimum level is sixty-five percent (65%).
Frost- seed potatoes or tubers are adequately protected from frost if planted one to three inches deep (1”-3”). If too cold, a brief hard freeze, the leaves and stem will tend to wilt and die. The seed potato or tuber will send new shoots. In order to reap the benefits of an earlier planting- before the last frost- growers should protect the sprouts.
Temperature points- between 29-32 °F represents a light frost, 25-28°F can damage potatoes underground; in the fall this temperature will stop growth.

D. Cultivation Methods
Tubers, seed potatoes, and potato seeds are the primary methods for growing potatoes. In a small garden one might choose one or a few types. In the potato farming business there are many choices to be made depending on soil, climate, temperatures, water, pests, and of course the market- what do the buyers want.

Tuber refers to the whole potato which can be put in the sun until it begins to form ‘eyes” or sprouts then buried where it can grow into a new plant.
Seed potatoes are potatoes pieces usually certified to be free of diseases that can be planted to start new plants. In the US, 15 states are indicated as seed potato growing regions. They are selected for characteristics of soil and climate- such as a hard winter that kills off insects and some diseases- and relative freedom from diseases and blights.
Potato Seeds - Many of us who have had gardens, or even in the kitchen have seen potatoes sprout. We go from having a potato to having a sprouted potato, one ‘with eyes’. We have seen the potato cutting quickly show roots when left to sit in water. We know that if we put it into the ground it will grow into a plant. Once in the ground the plant begins to grow- a stalk, wide or medium dark green leaves and- after several weeks- the potato plant flowers. White, pink, or blue flowers with yellow centers will attract bees. Once pollinated the flower goes to seed - a small green ball- as the season progresses. This little green ball is full of-dah-dah- Potato seeds!

E. Where Do Potatoes Grow?

In the year 2013 the major sources of potatoes will be China and India followed by Russia, Ukraine, and the US. 2/. It is interesting to note that the US leads in yield per acre by a vast amount over China and India. Potatoes are a major part of the typical diet in Eastern and Central Europe which also have very high yields of potatoes per hectare, and consumption per capita. Potatoes as a group are amazing food plants.

They became a staple and ,according to many scholars, were the basis of population growth in Europe after about 1650. There were only a few species in use then, as brought to Europe by the Spanish from South America. This led to problems of disease and blight. One species could be wiped out by a fungus or disease. This happened and in one famous case- The Irish Potato Famine- became a major cause of people leaving a place, a great migration to the Americas. (Cambridge Article: Potato)
Scotland became a center of potato farming in England and a center of agricultural science for potatoes. It was relatively easy to cross breed potatoes to obtain varieties that would resist certain disease or insects. Similarly in the US, scientific advancements increased yield and resistant to insects, drought, disease, and blight. In Eastern and Central Europe the potato also thrived and became a vital part of diet and a food source for growing populations. Until the recent growth of China and India, Russia, Central Europe and the US were world leaders in potato production and consumption.

III. Life cycle stages
The potato’s life cycle is little known for such a wide spread, globally important food crop. Most simply say- plant a potato and watch it grow. There are four stages:

(1) Planting - Involves the preparation of seed, seed potato, or a whole potato or tuber; as stated above the potatoes or parts with eyes and or roots already developed go into the prepared ground; until (2) the Vegetative State-This is the stage where the roots begin absorbing water and nutrients, the plant begins to grow above and below ground. Above ground, it is a green stemmed plant with leaves to turn sunlight into sugars and starches. Below ground is the process of forming specialized roots which will swell into nodes and then tubers; and (3) Growth and Maturation- This is the stage in which the plant has full leaves above ground and begins to form larger tubers underground. It is also when flowers develop. This stage continues until the tubers underground begin to bulk and mature. The potato flowers go to seed (form small green seed pods); the leafy canopy above ground begins to yellow and wither. (4) Harvest-Maturation - harvest has four periods: early, mid-season, long-season, and fingerlings. Early or new potatoes mature in sixty to eighty (60-80) days, fingerlings and mid-season yields take eighty to one hundred (80-100) days, and late potatoes need one hundred to one hundred-twenty (100-120) days. The loose mound of soil provides an easy way to harvest. One can push aside the soil to retrieve potatoes, and cover back to allow further maturation. Whether gathering food for a grower, or sending food to market for the farmer; after harvest, care is needed. Potatoes must be kept cool and away from sunlight. Moisture and ventilation must be carefully managed. Potatoes are susceptible to forms of mold that cause rot.

IV. Products from the Potato

A. Foods

Potatoes are a complete food, one can actually live on a diet of potatoes with little else added. They may lack vitamin D (found in milk) and Vitamin A (found in butter). The potato perhaps more than any other food has blended into the cooking styles of many cultures. The potato is versatile- can be boiled, baked, fried; eaten whole or in smaller pieces. It goes well with other major food types- dairy, fish, meats and poultry. In the US and Europe, potatoes often stand alone, prepared with herbs. They are also widely used in soups and stews. In Eastern Europe many of the most widely used dishes are based on the potato- pierogi and potato dumplings are but a few. In Western Europe English fish and chips, Belgian Stoemp, French Vichyssoise are good examples. In recent years it has become more widely used in Asian styles of cooking, more widely consumed in India and China- vast markets for food.

B. Fast foods and Snacks

Few foods have become as widespread as the French fried potato. Many of us even have our favorites among the many styles: English Chips, Belgium Fries, French Fries, and in the US countless ways of home fries. In the US fast food chains grew in the post WWII era in cities and, as the automobile became widespread, malls and along America’s highways. Then it quickly spread to the rest of the world- fast food service of burgers and fries. McDonald’s became a worldwide symbol of the success and appeal of a hot order of fried potatoes. Many other companies around the world moved with the McDonald’s model and the consistent element among most was French fried potatoes.

Snack foods have become a major food source featuring potatoes. The potato chip is the snack food equivalent of the French fry- seems to be everywhere; and is a regular part of the diet of billions of people. In the US one need only walk down grocery store aisles to see firsthand the impact of potatoes in snack foods.

C. Oils and Chemicals
Potatoes have industrial uses beyond food for people and animals. It has an important place in many other products such as paper and packaging. As with any food plant it has a potential for use in production of bio-fuels, synthetic fuels and oils.

Starch
A major product usage of potatoes is potato starch. Often not noticed as an ingredient, it is widely used in foods, thickeners, as flour in baked goods. It’s also used in chemicals, paper, and other applications. One new use is in biodegradable containers.
Biodegradable Packaging
Petroleum is the traditional base for plastics; it has become more costly over time. In addition there is a negative environmental impact to plastics disposal. Potatoes can be a more cost effective and beneficial source of plastics than oil. It is a more cost effective method with a much more favorable environmental impact. The key is to replace oil –polyethylene- with potato starch based polylactic acids or PLA. Potato starch can then be used to make many types of plastic film, combined into fibers, and resin compounds.

Biodegradable packaging holds great promise for the future in that these materials will decompose quickly but also be returned to the earth as nutrients. These include plastic bags, trays, and many typical food packaging applications. The benefit to the environment is measurable: decomposition of potato starch is significantly shorter than standard plastics. One company has introduced a raincoat with potato seeds nested in the waterproof material with instructions to bury the coat after use, “I am a potato”.

D. Alcohol
Potatoes are a valued source of alcohol in Vodka production. While many grains might be used to make alcohol, Eastern and Central Europe in particular have well developed arts and traditions for making fine vodka from potatoes. They are considered one of the traditional and acceptable methods for quality vodka among major vodka producing nations in Europe.

E. Animal feeds
Potato peels and tubers are high in vitamins, nutrients and carbohydrates. They have some appreciable amounts of fiber. They can be cost effective additions to grains in animal foods. As a surplus or sometimes waste products from food production, it can be utilized in animal feeds.

V. Availability and Characteristics
Heirloom potatoes are usually chosen for the same reasons they became heirlooms: qualities of taste, texture, color, resistance to disease, and yield per acre. In recent years there has been a surge in consumer interest and consumption of heirloom potatoes. The best evidence of which is increased availability in response to demand.

A. Availability
Heirloom seeds, tubers, and seed potatoes are available from commercial sources, private sources and public interest organizations. One type of organization is the seed exchange where owners of seed stock donate samples which are then developed in sterile conditions. These offer the important pledge against GMO materials and an assessment of disease or defects. Commercial sources include some of the major seed and plant vendors as well as local businesses such as nurseries. Private exchanges are a great tradition in heirloom potato farming.

B. Information
The ideal combination is an heirloom stock and a story. Many heirlooms were in fact handed down from generation to generation. The other part of the story is in ‘why?’ Why was this potato chosen for this special place? The answer is often in its taste, texture and adaptation to growing conditions. Yield is another important factor, especially for farmers. Taste is an outstanding characteristic- after all the ultimate purpose for most heirlooms is food rather than commercial applications. Color, aroma, skin textures and other aesthetic factors make a potato appeal to growers. Information about resistance to pests or disease and geographic areas in which it has been grown are necessary and desirable parts of the decision to try one variety or another.

Conclusion
The characteristics of the more popular and widely available heirloom potatoes demonstrate genetic diversity and the scope of their contribution to enhanced tastes and enjoyment of food. An example of diversity is heirloom fingerling varieties. These potatoes have long, knobby finger-like shapes, much smaller than regular potatoes. Some of the popular, available heirlooms and fingerling varieties and their food traits are as follows:

Bintje- the most widely produced and consumed yellow potato. It is prized as a French fried potato, medium wax and exceptional flavor. Many comments say it has much more flavor than commercial yellow or gold potatoes. The Bintje has drawbacks such as low yield per acre which must be offset by its taste and marketing to support workable price points.

Yellow Finn - dark yellow flesh, is moist with slight flakiness, excellent for baking, mashing, or frying, pear shaped tubers. In California, the most popular varieties grown by small-scale producers are Yellow Finn and Bintje, both very old European varieties that are no longer protected and therefore are not subject to royalties (UCal Agriculture)

German Butterball –high yield heirloom potatoes have yellow skin, yellow flesh and a creamy texture when cooked. They are considered an all-around potato excellent for roasting, frying, and baking.

Arran Victory –a subtle hazelnut taste is described as a hallmark of Arran Victory (1918), a violet-skinned potato from the Isle of Arran, Scotland. It has been cited by many gourmet magazines to rank as one of the great connoisseur’s potatoes of the 20th century (Goumet Magazine) vivid blue/purple skin with contrasting white flesh, texture cited as floury, rated- very tasty. It is catalogued as good yield if given a long growing season; some resistance to blight.

Catriona -Purple-blotched skin introduced in (1920). Reviews suggest it always tastes freshly dug, and has a flavor like walnut or nut bread.

Russet Burbank - potato, created in 1920s by Luther Burbank. It is known for its large uniform size slightly sweet medium sugar content; a balance needed for French fry production.

Purple Viking -heirloom potatoes have purple skin, white flesh and a texture suitable for baking or mashing.

Russian Banana- a fingerling heirloom potato noted for its pleasant flavor. It is widely eaten roasted, baked, broiled, grilled, boiled and used in salads, purees, soups and sauces.

Swedish Peanut- buttery-flesh, offered as wonderful in combination and as finger food.
Ross Finn Apple- fingerling potato with rose skin and yellow flesh, described as slightly sweet.

Summing up…
The life of the potato is a fascinating story, one which tells a great deal about human life and history. It reflects on the vital need for reliable sources of food, the importance of diversity. It shows how one discovery in one part of the world can result in dramatic changes for people in every other part of the world. In the life of the potato is the essence of the human story- a way to survive, grow and prosper. It is a way, even in this day of modern convenience, to reach into the ground and gather food for our families; and to take a step towards a happier and healthier life.

Sources and references

1/the four food plants most consumed are: Potatoes, Maize (corn), rice and wheat

2/ [ 2012 Rank in millions of metric tons]

Peoples Republic of China 74.8
India 36.6
Russia, 21.1
Ukraine 18.7
United States 18.3

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service, Topics, Crops, Potatoes.
http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/vegetables-pulses/potatoes.aspx#trade
Cambridge World History of Food, IIB.3 White Potato
Gale Encyclopedia of Food & Culture: Potato
Reference: Potato Association of America, Handbook
Reference: US Potato Board (USPB)
Source: water and irrigation
@http://waterquality.montana.edu/docs/irrigation/potatoes.shtml
Source: Article: Heirlooms spice up the garden, and life itself
Nancy O'Donnell, Albany (N.Y.) Times Union Albany (N.Y.) Times Union
Source: gardenorganic.org.uk
Source: Open pollination
Article: Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service, HGIC 1255
Source: Heirloom Vegetable Gardener's Assistant
Source: Seed Savers Exchange http://www.seedsavers.org/
Source:
Encyclopedia Brittanica, Article: Andes Mountains
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/23692/Andes-Mountains/41650/Soils
From Bolivia to Colombia the soils of the plateau and the east side of the eastern cordilleras show characteristics closely related to altitude. In the Andean páramo embryonic soils black with organic material are found. At altitudes between 6,000 and 12,000 feet, red, brown, and chernozem soils occur on moderate slopes and on basin floors. In more poorly drained locations, soils with a permeable sandy horizon are relatively fertile; these soils are the most economically important in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. The sabana soils of Colombia are gray-brown, with an impermeable claypan in certain levels, resulting in poor drainage.