working principle of an antenna..

Introduction
Antennas are a very important component of communication systems. By
definition, an antenna is a device used to transform an RF signal, traveling
on a conductor, into an electromagnetic wave in free space. Antennas
demonstrate a property known as reciprocity, which means that an
antenna will maintain the same characteristics regardless if it is
transmitting or receiving. Most antennas are resonant devices, which
operate efficiently over a relatively narrow frequency band. An antenna
must be tuned to the same frequency band of the radio system to which it
is connected, otherwise the reception and the transmission will be
impaired. When a signal is fed into an antenna, the antenna will emit
radiation distributed in space in a certain way. A graphical representation
of the relative distribution of the radiated power in space is called a
radiation pattern.
Antenna Glossary
Before we talk about specific antennas, there are a few common terms
that must be defined and explained:

• Input Impedance
  For an efficient transfer of energy, the impedance of the radio, of the
  antenna and of the transmission cable connecting them must be the same.
  Transceivers and their transmission lines are typically designed for 50
  €
  Ω
  impedance. If the antenna has an impedance different from 50
  €
  Ω, then
  there is a mismatch and an impedance matching circuit is required.

• Return loss
  The return loss is another way of expressing mismatch. It is a logarithmic
  ratio measured in dB that compares the power reflected by the antenna
  to the power that is fed into the antenna from the transmission line.
  The relationship between SWR and return loss is the following:
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  Return Loss (in dB) =
  €
  20log10
  SWR
  SWR −1

• Bandwidth
  The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the range of frequencies over which
  the antenna can operate correctly. The antenna's bandwidth is the number
  of Hz for which the antenna will exhibit an SWR less than 2:1.
  The bandwidth can also be described in terms of percentage of the
  center frequency of the band.

€
BW = 100×
FH − FL
FC
where FH is the highest frequency in the band, FL is the lowest
frequency in the band, and FC is the center frequency in the band.
In this way, bandwidth is constant relative to frequency. If bandwidth
was expressed in absolute units of frequency, it would be different
depending upon the center frequency. Different types of antennas have
different bandwidth limitations.

• Directivity and Gain
  Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular
  direction when transmitting, or to receive energy better from a particular
  direction when receiving. In a static situation, it is possible to use the
  antenna directivity to concentrate the radiation beam in the wanted
  direction. However in a dynamic system where the transceiver is not
  fixed, the antenna should radiate equally in all directions, and this is
  known as an omni-directional antenna.
  Gain is not a quantity which can be defined in terms of a physical
  quantity such as the Watt or the Ohm, but it is a dimensionless ratio. Gain
  is given in reference to a standard antenna. The two most common
  reference antennas are the isotropic antenna and the resonant half-wave
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  dipole antenna. The isotropic antenna radiates equally well in all
  directions. Real isotropic antennas do not exist, but they provide useful
  and simple theoretical antenna patterns with which to compare real
  antennas. Any real antenna will radiate more energy in some directions
  than in others. Since it cannot create energy, the total power radiated is
  the same as an isotropic antenna, so in other directions it must radiate less
  energy. The gain of an antenna in a given direction is the amount of
  energy radiated in that direction compared to the energy an isotropic
  antenna would radiate in the same direction when driven with the same
  input power. Usually we are only interested in the maximum gain, which is
  the gain in the direction in which the antenna is radiating most of the
  power. An antenna gain of 3 dB compared to an isotropic antenna would
  be written as 3 dBi. The resonant half-wave dipole can be a useful standard
  for comparing to other antennas at one frequency or over a very narrow
  band of frequencies. To compare the dipole to an antenna over a range of
  frequencies requires a number of dipoles of different lengths. An antenna
  gain of 3 dB compared to a dipole antenna would be written as 3 dBd.
  The method of measuring gain by comparing the antenna under test
  against a known standard antenna, which has a calibrated gain, is
  technically known as a gain transfer technique. Another method for
  measuring gain is the 3 antennas method., where the transmitted and
  received power at the antenna terminals is measured between three
  arbitrary antennas at a known fixed distance.
• Radiation Pattern
  The radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of the
  radiated field in various directions from the antenna, at a constant
  distance. The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also
  describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is
  three-dimensional, but usually the measured radiation patterns are a twodimensional
  slice of the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or
  vertical planes. These pattern measurements are presented in either a
  rectangular or a polar format. The following figure shows a rectangular
  plot presentation of a typical 10 element Yagi. The detail is good but it is
  difficult to visualize the antenna behavior at different directions.
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  Polar coordinate systems are used almost universally. In the polarcoordinate
  graph, points are located by projection along a rotating axis
  (radius) to an intersection with one of several concentric circles. Following
  is a polar plot of the same 10 element Yagi antenna.

Polar coordinate systems may be divided generally in two classes: linear
and logarithmic. In the linear coordinate system, the concentric circles are
equally spaced, and are graduated. Such a grid may be used to prepare a
linear plot of the power contained in the signal. For ease of comparison,
the equally spaced concentric circles may be replaced with appropriately
placed circles representing the decibel response, referenced to 0 dB at
the outer edge of the plot. In this kind of plot the minor lobes are
suppressed. Lobes with peaks more than 15 dB or so below the main lobe
disappear because of their small size. This grid enhances plots in which the
antenna has a high directivity and small minor lobes. The voltage of the
signal, rather than the power, can also be plotted on a linear coordinate
system. In this case, too, the directivity is enhanced and the minor lobes
suppressed, but not in the same degree as in the linear power grid.
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In the logarithmic polar coordinate system the concentric grid lines are
spaced periodically according to the logarithm of the voltage in the signal.
Different values may be used for the logarithmic constant of periodicity,
and this choice will have an effect on the appearance of the plotted
patterns. Generally the 0 dB reference for the outer edge of the chart is
used. With this type of grid, lobes that are 30 or 40 dB below the main
lobe are still distinguishable. The spacing between points at 0 dB and at -3
dB is greater than the spacing between -20 dB and -23 dB, which is
greater than the spacing between -50 dB and -53 dB. The spacing thus
correspond to the relative significance of such changes in antenna
performance.
A modified logarithmic scale emphasizes the shape of the major beam
while compressing very low-level (>30 dB) sidelobes towards the center
of the pattern.
There are two kinds of radiation pattern: absolute and relative. Absolute
radiation patterns are presented in absolute units of field strength or
power. Relative radiation patterns are referenced in relative units of field
strength or power. Most radiation pattern measurements are relative to
the isotropic antenna, and then the gain transfer method is then used to
establish the absolute gain of the antenna.
The radiation pattern in the region close to the antenna is not the same
as the pattern at large distances. The term near-field refers to the field
pattern that exists close to the antenna, while the term far-field refers to
the field pattern at large distances. The far-field is also called the radiation
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field, and is what is most commonly of interest. Ordinarily, it is the
radiated power that is of interest, and so antenna patterns are usually
measured in the far-field region. For pattern measurement it is important
to choose a distance sufficiently large to be in the far-field, well out of the
near-field. The minimum permissible distance depends on the dimensions
of the antenna in relation to the wavelength. The accepted formula for
this distance is:

€
r
min = 2d2
λ
where rmin is the minimum distance from the antenna, d is the largest
dimension of the antenna, and
€
λ is the wavelength.

• Beamwidth
  An antenna's beamwidth is usually understood to mean the half-power
  beamwidth. The peak radiation intensity is found and then the points on
  either side of the peak which represent half the power of the peak
  intensity are located. The angular distance between the half power points
  is defined as the beamwidth. Half the power expressed in decibels is
  —3dB, so the half power beamwidth is sometimes referred to as the 3dB
  beamwidth. Both horizontal and vertical beamwidths are usually
  considered.
  Assuming that most of the radiated power is not divided into sidelobes,
  then the directive gain is inversely proportional to the beamwidth: as the
  beamwidth decreases, the directive gain increases.
  -Sidelobes
  No antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction.
  Some is inevitably radiated in other directions. The peaks are referred to
  as sidelobes, commonly specified in dB down from the main lobe.
• Nulls
  In an antenna radiation pattern, a null is a zone in which the effective
  radiated power is at a minimum. A null often has a narrow directivity angle
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  compared to that of the main beam. Thus, the null is useful for several
  purposes, such as suppression of interfering signals in a given direction.
• Polarization
  Polarization is defined as the orientation of the electric field of an
  electromagnetic wave. Polarization is in general described by an ellipse.
  Two special cases of elliptical polarization are linear polarization and
  circular polarization. The initial polarization of a radio wave is determined
  by the antenna.
  With linear polarization the electric field vector stays in the same plane
  all the time. Vertically polarized radiation is somewhat less affected by
  reflections over the transmission path. Omnidirectional antennas always
  have vertical polarization. With horizontal polarization, such reflections
  cause variations in received signal strength. Horizontal antennas are less
  likely to pick up man-made interference, which ordinarily is vertically
  polarized.
  In circular polarization the electric field vector appears to be rotating
  with circular motion about the direction of propagation, making one full
  turn for each RF cycle. This rotation may be righthand or lefthand. Choice
  of polarization is one of the design choices available to the RF system
  designer.
• Polarization Mismatch
  In order to transfer maximum power between a transmit and a receive
  antenna, both antennas must have the same spatial orientation, the same
  polarization sense and the same axial ratio.
  When the antennas are not aligned or do not have the same
  polarization, there will be a reduction in power transfer between the two
  antennas. This reduction in power transfer will reduce the overall system
  efficiency and performance.
  When the transmit and receive antennas are both linearly polarized,
  physical antenna misalignment will result in a polarization mismatch loss
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  which can be determined using the following formula:
  Polarization Mismatch Loss (dB) = 20 log (cos
  €
  ϑ )
  where
  €
  ϑ is the misalignment angle between the two antennas. For 15°
  we have a loss of 0.3 dB, for 30° we have 1.25 dB, for 45° we have 3 dB
  and for 90° we have an infinite loss.
  The actual mismatch loss between a circularly polarized antenna and a
  linearly polarized antenna will vary depending upon the axial ratio of the
  circularly polarized antenna.
  If polarizations are coincident no attenuation occurs due to coupling
  mismatch between field and antenna, while if they are not, then the
  communication can't even take place.
• Front-to-back ratio
  It is useful to know the front-to-back ratio that is the ratio of the
  maximum directivity of an antenna to its directivity in the rearward
  direction. For example, when the principal plane pattern is plotted on a
  relative dB scale, the front-to-back ratio is the difference in dB between
  the level of the maximum radiation, and the level of radiation in a
  direction 180 degrees.
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  Types of Antennas
  A classification of antennas can be based on:
• Frequency and size
  antennas used for HF are different from the ones used for VHF, which in
  turn are different from antennas for microwave. The wavelength is
  different at different frequencies, so the antennas must be different in size
  to radiate signals at the correct wavelength. We are particularly interested
  in antennas working in the microwave range, especially in the 2.4 GHz and
  5 GHz frequencies. At 2.4 GHz the wavelength is 12.5 cm, while at 5 Ghz
  it is 6 cm.
• Directivity
  antennas can be omnidirectional, sectorial or directive. Omnidirectional
  antennas radiate the same pattern all around the antenna in a complete
  360 degrees pattern. The most popular types of omnidirectional antennas
  are the Dipole-Type and the Ground Plane. Sectorial antennas radiate
  primarily in a specific area. The beam can be as wide as 180 degrees, or as
  narrow as 60 degrees. Directive antennas are antennas in which the
  beamwidth is much narrower than in sectorial antennas. They have the
  highest gain and are therefore used for long distance links. Types of
  directive antennas are the Yagi, the biquad, the horn, the helicoidal, the
  patch antenna, the Parabolic Dish and many others.
• Physical construction
  antennas can be constructed in many different ways, ranging from simple
  wires to parabolic dishes, up to coffee cans.
  When considering antennas suitable for 2.4 GHz WLAN use, another
  classification can be used:
• Application
  we identify two application categories which are Base Station and Point-toPoint.
  Each of these suggests different types of antennas for their purpose.
  Base Stations are used for multipoint access. Two choices are Omni
  antennas which radiate equally in all directions, or Sectorial antennas,
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  which focus into a small area. In the Point-to-Point case, antennas are used
  to connect two single locations together. Directive antennas are the
  primary choice for this application.
  A brief list of common type of antennas for the 2.4 GHz frequency is
  presented now, with a short description and basic information about their
  characteristics.
  1/4 Wavelength Ground Plane
  The 1⁄4 Wavelength Ground Plane antenna is very simple in its
  construction and is useful for communications when size, cost and ease of
  construction are important. This antenna is designed to transmit a
  vertically polarized signal. It consists of a 1⁄4 wave element as half-dipole
  and three or four 1⁄4 wavelength ground elements bent 30 to 45 degrees
  down. This set of elements, called radials, is known as a ground plane.
  This is a simple and effective antenna that can capture a signal equally
  from all directions. To increase the gain, however, the signal can be
  flattened out to take away focus from directly above and below, and
  providing more focus on the horizon. The vertical beamwidth represents
  the degree of flatness in the focus. This is useful in a Point-to-Multipoint
  situation, if all the other antennas are also at the same height. The gain of
  this antenna is in the order of 2 - 4 dBi.
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  Yagi antenna
  A basic Yagi consists of a certain number of straight elements, each
  measuring approximately half wavelength. The driven or active element of
  a Yagi is the equivalent of a center-fed, half-wave dipole antenna. Parallel
  to the driven element, and approximately 0.2 to 0.5 wavelength on either
  side of it, are straight rods or wires called reflectors and directors, or
  passive elements altogether. A reflector is placed behind the driven
  element and is slightly longer than half wavelength; a director is placed in
  front of the driven element and is slightly shorter than half wavelength. A
  typical Yagi has one reflector and one or more directors. The antenna
  propagates electromagnetic field energy in the direction running from the
  driven element toward the directors, and is most sensitive to incoming
  electromagnetic field energy in this same direction. The more directors a
  Yagi has, the greater the gain. As more directors are added to a Yagi,
  however, it becomes longer. Following is the photo of a Yagi antenna with
  6 directors and one reflector.
  Yagi antennas are used primarily for Point-to-Point links, have a gain
  from 10 to 20 dBi and a horizontal beamwidth of 10 to 20 degrees.
  Horn
  The horn antenna derives its name from the characteristic flared
  appearance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, cylindrical or
  conical. The direction of maximum radiation corresponds with the axis of
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  the horn. It is easily fed with a waveguide, but can be fed with a coaxial
  cable and a proper transition. Horn antennas are commonly used as the
  active element in a dish antenna. The horn is pointed toward the center of
  the dish reflector. The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any
  other type of antenna, at the focal point of the dish minimizes loss of
  energy around the edges of the dish reflector. At 2.4 GHz, a simple horn
  antenna made with a tin can has a gain in the order of 10 - 15 dBi.
  Parabolic Dish
  Antennas based on parabolic reflectors are the most common type of
  directive antennas when a high gain is required. The main advantage is
  that they can be made to have gain and directivity as large as required.
  The main disadvantage is that big dishes are difficult to mount and are
  likely to have a large windage.
  The basic property of a perfect parabolic reflector is that it converts a
  spherical wave irradiating from a point source placed at the focus into a
  plane wave. Conversely, all the energy received by the dish from a distant
  source is reflected to a single point at the focus of the dish. The position of
  the focus, or focal length, is given by:

€
f = D2
16× c
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where D is the dish diameter and c is the depth of the parabola at its
center.
The size of the dish is the most important factor since it determines the
maximum gain that can be achieved at the given frequency and the
resulting beamwidth. The gain and beamwidth obtained are given by:

€
G = (π × D)
2
λ
2 × n

€
BW = 70λ
D
where D is the dish diameter and n is the efficiency. The efficiency is
determined mainly by the effectiveness of illumination of the dish by the
feed, but also by other factors. Each time the diameter of a dish is doubled,
the gain is four times, or 6 dB, greater. If both stations double the size of
their dishes, signal strength can be increased of 12 dB, a very substantial
gain. An efficiency of 50% can be assumed when hand-building the
antenna.
The ratio f/D (focal length/diameter of the dish) is the fundamental
factor governing the design of the feed for a dish. The ratio is directly
related to the beamwidth of the feed necessary to illuminate the dish
effectively. Two dishes of the same diameter but different focal lengths
require different design of feed if both are to be illuminated efficiently.
The value of 0.25 corresponds to the common focal-plane dish in which
the focus is in the same plane as the rim of the dish.
Dishes up to one meter are usually made from solid material. Aluminum
is frequently used for its weight advantage, its durability and good
electrical characteristics. Windage increases rapidly with dish size and soon
becomes a severe problem. Dishes which have a reflecting surface that
uses an open mesh are frequently used. These have a poorer front-to-back
ratio, but are safer to use and easier to build. Copper, aluminum, brass,
galvanized steel and iron are suitable mesh materials.
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BiQuad
The BiQuad antenna is simple to build and offers good directivity and
gain for Point-to-Point communications. It consists of a two squares of the
same size of 1⁄4 wavelength as a radiating element and of a metallic plate
or grid as reflector. This antenna has a beamwidth of about 70 degrees and
a gain in the order of 10-12 dBi. It can be used as stand-alone antenna or
as feeder for a Parabolic Dish. The polarization is such that looking at the
antenna from the front, if the squares are placed side by side the
polarization is vertical.
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Other Antennas
Many other types of antennas exist and new ones are created following
the advances in technology.
Sector or Sectorial antennas: they are widely used in cellular
telephony infrastructure and are usually built adding a reflective plate to
one or more phased dipoles. Their horizontal beamwidth can be as wide as
180 degrees, or as narrow as 60 degrees, while the vertical is usually much
narrower. Composite antennas can be built with many Sectors to cover a
wider horizontal range (multisectorial antenna).
Panel or Patch antennas: they are solid flat panels used for indoor
coverage, with a gain up to 20 dB.